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Guilt is a common response following loss and/or traumatic experiences with significant victimization (e.g., after terrorist acts, war, personal victimization). When events result in severe traumatic reactions, multiple losses can occur. In addition to deaths, parts of one's own nature (e.g., self-confidence, generosity) as well as resources, circumstances, and expectations can be altered or lost. Guilt can occur not only in relationship to what we ought or ought not to do but in relationship to our views about what we ought to be. What is possible under normal circumstances, however, is often not possible under traumatic circumstances. Therefore, assessing responsibility based on normal conditions for what happened during traumatic events may result in faulty assessment. This paper is divided into three segments: understanding and assessing guilt, imagined guilt (e.g., survivor's guilt), and guilt regarding actions taken or not taken that resulted in harm. The third segment may be less relevant to individuals who have survived terrorism and other unanticipated acts of violence (e.g., 9/11/2001, Oklahoma City bombing, Columbine and other school shootings, rape, assault). Understanding and Assessing Guilt The emotion of guilt is associated with the realization or perception of wrongdoing (of having violated an important social, moral, or ethical rule; Chaplin, 1975). A person may feel guilty without being consciously aware of it. Conscious and unconscious guilt may act as an underlying factor in behavior, emotions and relationships. Although conscious guilt is experienced as very real, a distinction has been made between "real" (or "active") guilt and "imagined" (or "passive") guilt (Danieli, 1984; Lifton, 1993). Following traumatic events, an individual may experience "real" guilt for acts of commission or omission that resulted in the physical or emotional endangerment or harm of others. "Imagined" guilt (e.g., survivor guilt, guilt with an element of wishful thinking about one's ability to act) includes the types of guilt that occur in the absence of having acted harmfully. Both types of guilt include self condemnation, and either can result in harm to self or others (e.g., punishing acts to self or others; the action or elicitation of rejection, disdain and/or punishment). Following traumatic events, guilt may be a complicated part of traumatic response; it is among the symptoms associated with more pronounced traumatic reactions. Guilt may intensify or complicate trauma and/or grief reactions (Nader et al., 1990; Schwarz and Kowalski, 1992). It also may result in hopelessness, depression and other problems such as self-harm, suicidal feelings, and substance abuse. Resolution and acting in the best interest of both the guilt-ridden and the offended may require the help of a skilled individual (e.g., therapist, clergy or, in some cases, a wise friend). Unresolved guilt, whether for actual or perceived offenses, can result in a multitude of problems including mental health difficulties, negative responses from others, and disrupted relationships. Guilt can immobilize. It can hinder or prevent well-being, trauma recovery, a normal progression through life, productive action and positive relationships. Recognized or unrecognized guilt can undermine relationships over prolonged periods or affect the kinds of relationships a person attracts to him or herself. It can keep the guilt-ridden individual "stuck" in suffering, depression, and/or self-recrimination. The attitude and demeanor of guilt may elicit reactions from others such as ire, punishment, or victimization. Guilt can punish more than the guilty. It colors interactions and the quality of life for the guilt-ridden and for those whose lives are affected by their moods and behaviors and by the level of their support, goal-setting and productivity. Like anger, guilt at its best is a mobilizer toward productive action. Staying focused on guilt rather than acting positively and toward resolution can be a way of avoiding facing other issues and emotions. For example, guilt can serve to keep an individual focused on a particular time period (such as the period before something horrible happened). It may give a false sense of control; a sense that the person was able to do something to prevent the harm ("If only I had..."). Guilt may prevent someone from facing other key issues or intense emotions, and, in that sense, may serve as an unrecognized method of avoidance (Chaplin, 1975; Nader, 1997). Unresolved guilt impedes recovery and produces difficulties for more than the guilty. Terror and Reactions When endangered, the body responds neurochemically to propel us to protective action (counter-aggression, stillness, or flight). Survival becomes a neuro-biological as well as an emotional imperative. During and after traumatic events, individuals often must find immediate ways to survive. In the chaos, arousal, and propulsion to self-protect, actions may be taken that are later regretted. In the rush to escape or because of the nature of the event, people may be left behind; some who die. It may be essential to move quickly in order to prevent additional loss of life as well as to survive. This was true during and after the terrorist acts of September 11 where some narrowly escaped fires or debris that killed others standing near them. Not knowing how much time there was to flee or that the building would collapse, some people rushed toward exits leaving behind them slower moving individuals such as pregnant women and the disabled. With so many dead, not knowing the fates of those left behind has resulted for some in guilt feelings. In contrast, others have struggled with the fact that their loved ones did stay behind to help others and were killed with those whom they attempted to save. Studies suggest that, after an event, people overestimate their preexisting predictive knowledge of the event (Fischhoff, Crowell & Kipke, 1999). This overestimation can lead to an inaccurate assessment of culpability.
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